PaLM 2 Technical Report
Written for the Research library (claude-opus-5-5) from the paper text. Original — arxiv.org/pdf/2305.10403
Summary
Large language models had mostly improved by adding parameters and training on corpora that were mostly English. PaLM 2, Google's successor to PaLM, tests whether better data, better training objectives and better scaling choices can produce a stronger model that is also cheaper to run. The team repeated compute-optimal scaling experiments at larger compute budgets. They built a much more multilingual pre-training mixture that spans hundreds of languages and also includes source code, mathematics and parallel bilingual documents, and they deduplicated it. They trained a Transformer on a tuned blend of objectives inspired by UL2. The largest variant, PaLM 2-L, has fewer parameters than the biggest PaLM but used more training compute. On generation, translation, coding, reasoning and BIG-Bench tasks, PaLM 2 clearly beats PaLM and is faster at inference. The report also covers responsible-AI work, including toxicity control and memorization audits. For teams working on less-resourced languages, the main lesson is that a carefully balanced multilingual corpus can improve non-English quality without hurting English.
Key points
- Scaling: the experiments found that, for a fixed compute budget, parameters and training tokens should grow at about the same rate (1:1). Earlier practice grew model size roughly three times faster than data.
- Data: PaLM's non-code data was about 78% English. PaLM 2's mixture is far more varied in languages and domains, and larger models absorbed this extra non-English data without losing English performance.
- Language exams: on C2-level (CEFR) proficiency tests in Chinese (HSK), Japanese (J-Test), French (TCF), Spanish (DELE) and Italian (PLIDA), PaLM 2 passed in every language tested. For example, it reached level A/special A on the Japanese exam, where PaLM got level F.
- Toxicity control: special control tokens, added during only part of pre-training, let users steer toxicity at inference time with no extra cost and no loss of other abilities.
- Memorization: canary sequences were inserted into the training data to measure memorization across languages. PaLM 2 reproduces training text word for word less often than PaLM.
Cited by
- Large Language Models for Mathematical Reasoning: Progresses and Challenges
- The Falcon Series of Open Language Models
- Tower: An Open Multilingual Large Language Model for Translation-Related Tasks
- Aya 23: Open Weight Releases to Further Multilingual Progress
- Qwen Technical Report
- Qwen-VL: A Versatile Vision-Language Model for Understanding, Localization, Text Reading, and Beyond
- AgentVerse: Facilitating Multi-Agent Collaboration and Exploring Emergent Behaviors
- AlpaGasus: Training A Better Alpaca with Fewer Data
- AlphaMath Almost Zero: Process Supervision without Process
- Towards Reasoning Era: A Survey of Long Chain-of-Thought for Reasoning Large Language Models
- Qwen-Audio: Advancing Universal Audio Understanding via Unified Large-Scale Audio-Language Models
- Gemini 2.5: Pushing the Frontier with Advanced Reasoning, Multimodality, Long Context, and Next Generation Agentic Capabilities
- SeamlessM4T: Massively Multilingual & Multimodal Machine Translation
- Large Legal Fictions: Profiling Legal Hallucinations in Large Language Models
- Safe RLHF: Safe Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedback
- The Devil Is in the Errors: Leveraging Large Language Models for Fine-grained Machine Translation Evaluation
- Promptbreeder: Self-Referential Self-Improvement Via Prompt Evolution
- Results of WMT23 Metrics Shared Task: Metrics Might Be Guilty but References Are Not Innocent
- Gemini: A Family of Highly Capable Multimodal Models
- Gemini 1.5: Unlocking multimodal understanding across millions of tokens of context
- ToRA: A Tool-Integrated Reasoning Agent for Mathematical Problem Solving
- MiniLLM: On-Policy Distillation of Large Language Models
- Catastrophic Jailbreak of Open-source LLMs via Exploiting Generation
- Large Language Models Cannot Self-Correct Reasoning Yet
- TrustLLM: Trustworthiness in Large Language Models
- Llama Guard: LLM-based Input-Output Safeguard for Human-AI Conversations
- Camels in a Changing Climate: Enhancing LM Adaptation with Tulu 2
- Adaptive-RAG: Learning to Adapt Retrieval-Augmented Large Language Models through Question Complexity
- BeaverTails: Towards Improved Safety Alignment of LLM via a Human-Preference Dataset
- MetricX-23: The Google Submission to the WMT 2023 Metrics Shared Task
- Challenges and Applications of Large Language Models
- DistiLLM: Towards Streamlined Distillation for Large Language Models
- HunyuanVideo: A Systematic Framework For Large Video Generative Models
- MADLAD-400: A Multilingual And Document-Level Large Audited Dataset
- RA-DIT: Retrieval-Augmented Dual Instruction Tuning
- Video-LLaVA: Learning United Visual Representation by Alignment Before Projection
- AgentBench: Evaluating LLMs as Agents
- DADA: Dialect Adaptation via Dynamic Aggregation of Linguistic Rules
- WizardMath: Empowering Mathematical Reasoning for Large Language Models via Reinforced Evol-Instruct
- GAIA: a benchmark for General AI Assistants
- Orca 2: Teaching Small Language Models How to Reason
- Generative Representational Instruction Tuning
- BLEnD: A Benchmark for LLMs on Everyday Knowledge in Diverse Cultures and Languages
- A Comprehensive Overview of Large Language Models
- Iterative Reasoning Preference Optimization
- Large Language Models Sensitivity to The Order of Options in Multiple-Choice Questions
- Code Llama: Open Foundation Models for Code
- AudioPaLM: A Large Language Model That Can Speak and Listen
- "Do Anything Now": Characterizing and Evaluating In-The-Wild Jailbreak Prompts on Large Language Models
- Beyond Human Data: Scaling Self-Training for Problem-Solving with Language Models
- Scaling LLM Test-Time Compute Optimally can be More Effective than Scaling Model Parameters
- Aligning Large Multimodal Models with Factually Augmented RLHF
- SALMONN: Towards Generic Hearing Abilities for Large Language Models
- Language-Specific Neurons: The Key to Multilingual Capabilities in Large Language Models
- Eyes Wide Shut? Exploring the Visual Shortcomings of Multimodal LLMs
- Aya Model: An Instruction Finetuned Open-Access Multilingual Language Model
- How Far Can Camels Go? Exploring the State of Instruction Tuning on Open Resources
- MathCoder: Seamless Code Integration in LLMs for Enhanced Mathematical Reasoning
- PandaLM: An Automatic Evaluation Benchmark for LLM Instruction Tuning Optimization
- Math-Shepherd: Verify and Reinforce LLMs Step-by-step without Human Annotations
- Measuring Multimodal Mathematical Reasoning with MATH-Vision Dataset
- Long-form factuality in large language models
- Adaptive Chameleon or Stubborn Sloth: Revealing the Behavior of Large Language Models in Knowledge Conflicts
- Benchmarking Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Medicine
- Corrective Retrieval Augmented Generation
- Baichuan 2: Open Large-scale Language Models
- The Dawn of LMMs: Preliminary Explorations with GPT-4V(ision)
- Large Language Models as Optimizers
- Rethinking Benchmark and Contamination for Language Models with Rephrased Samples
- GPTFUZZER: Red Teaming Large Language Models with Auto-Generated Jailbreak Prompts
- MetaMath: Bootstrap Your Own Mathematical Questions for Large Language Models
- MM-Vet: Evaluating Large Multimodal Models for Integrated Capabilities
- Scaling Relationship on Learning Mathematical Reasoning with Large Language Models
- MAmmoTH: Building Math Generalist Models through Hybrid Instruction Tuning
- TinyLlama: An Open-Source Small Language Model
- A Survey of Large Language Models
- LMSYS-Chat-1M: A Large-Scale Real-World LLM Conversation Dataset
- Instruction-Following Evaluation for Large Language Models
- Solving Challenging Math Word Problems Using GPT-4 Code Interpreter with Code-based Self-Verification
- WebArena: A Realistic Web Environment for Building Autonomous Agents
Cite
@misc{anil2023palm,
title = {{PaLM 2 Technical Report}},
author = {Anil, Rohan and Dai, Andrew M. and Firat, Orhan and Johnson, Melvin and Lepikhin, Dmitry and Passos, Alexandre and Shakeri, Siamak and Taropa, Emanuel and Bailey, Paige and Chen, Zhifeng and Chu, Eric and Clark, Jonathan H. and Shafey, Laurent El and Huang, Yanping and Meier-Hellstern, Kathy and Mishra, Gaurav and Moreira, Erica and Omernick, Mark and Robinson, Kevin and Ruder, Sebastian and Tay, Yi and Xiao, Kefan and Xu, Yuanzhong and Zhang, Yujing and Abrego, Gustavo Hernandez and Ahn, Junwhan and Austin, Jacob and Barham, Paul and Botha, Jan and Bradbury, James and Brahma, Siddhartha and Brooks, Kevin and Catasta, Michele and Cheng, Yong and Cherry, Colin and Choquette-Choo, Christopher A. and Chowdhery, Aakanksha and Crepy, Clement and Dave, Shachi and Dehghani, Mostafa and Dev, Sunipa and Devlin, Jacob and Diaz, Mark and Du, Nan and Dyer, Ethan and Feinberg, Vlad and Feng, Fangxiaoyu and Fienber, Vlad and Freitag, Markus and Garcia, Xavier and Gehrmann, Sebastian and Gonzalez, Lucas and Gur-Ari, Guy and Hand, Steven and Hashemi, Hadi and Hou, Le and Howland, Joshua and Hu, Andrea and Hui, Jeffrey and Hurwitz, Jeremy and Isard, Michael and Ittycheriah, Abe and Jagielski, Matthew and Jia, Wenhao and Kenealy, Kathleen and Krikun, Maxim and Kudugunta, Sneha and Lan, Chang and Lee, Katherine and Lee, Benjamin and Li, Eric and Li, Music and Li, Wei and Li, YaGuang and Li, Jian and Lim, Hyeontaek and Lin, Hanzhao and Liu, Zhongtao and Liu, Frederick and Maggioni, Marcello and Mahendru, Aroma and Maynez, Joshua and Misra, Vedant and Moussalem, Maysam and Nado, Zachary and Nham, John and Ni, Eric and Nystrom, Andrew and Parrish, Alicia and Pellat, Marie and Polacek, Martin and Polozov, Alex and Pope, Reiner and Qiao, Siyuan and Reif, Emily and Richter, Bryan and Riley, Parker and Ros, Alex Castro and Roy, Aurko and Saeta, Brennan and Samuel, Rajkumar and Shelby, Renee and Slone, Ambrose and Smilkov, Daniel and So, David R. and Sohn, Daniel and Tokumine, Simon and Valter, Dasha and Vasudevan, Vijay and Vodrahalli, Kiran and Wang, Xuezhi and Wang, Pidong and Wang, Zirui and Wang, Tao and Wieting, John and Wu, Yuhuai and Xu, Kelvin and Xu, Yunhan and Xue, Linting and Yin, Pengcheng and Yu, Jiahui and Zhang, Qiao and Zheng, Steven and Zheng, Ce and Zhou, Weikang and Zhou, Denny and Petrov, Slav and Wu, Yonghui},
year = {2023},
doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2305.10403},
eprint = {2305.10403},
archivePrefix = {arXiv},
url = {https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2305.10403}
}References
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