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home / papers / 2022 / OPT: Open Pre-trained Transformer Language Models

OPT: Open Pre-trained Transformer Language Models

Summary

The largest language models are very expensive to train, so only a few labs can reproduce them. Models available through paid APIs do not provide access to their weights, which makes them hard to study. The authors from Meta AI created OPT, a suite of autoregressive decoder-only transformers ranging from 125M to 175B parameters. The architecture and hyperparameters largely follow GPT-3. The pretraining corpus of approximately 180B tokens was assembled from parts of the RoBERTa corpus, the Pile, and PushShift.io Reddit. Duplicates were removed, and the text was tokenized with the GPT-2 BPE. The largest model, OPT-175B, was trained on 992 GPUs. The report candidly describes hardware failures and loss divergences, as well as the manual interventions used to overcome them. On standard zero- and few-shot benchmarks, OPT-175B roughly matches GPT-3, while the carbon footprint of its development is only about one-seventh that of GPT-3. The work is significant because it was the first to give the broad research community a GPT-3-scale model together with code and a detailed training logbook. This makes it possible to reproduce results and to study bias, toxicity, and robustness in LLMs.

Key points

  • Model sizes: 125M, 350M, 1.3B, 2.7B, 6.7B, 13B, 30B, 66B, and 175B parameters. Models up to 66B are released openly, while researchers from academia, civil society, government organizations, and industry labs can obtain access to OPT-175B upon request.
  • Training: 992 A100 GPUs (80GB), Fully Sharded Data Parallel combined with Megatron-LM tensor parallelism, up to 147 TFLOP/s per GPU. AdamW optimizer, sequence length 2048, ReLU activation.
  • Data: BookCorpus, Stories, CC-News v2, selected subsets of the Pile (including CommonCrawl, Wikipedia, Project Gutenberg, OpenWebText2, USPTO), and PushShift.io Reddit. For Reddit, only the longest comment chain from each thread was kept. Duplicates were removed using MinhashLSH with a Jaccard similarity threshold of ≥ 0.95. The authors note that the Pile contains a particularly large number of duplicates.
  • Training instability: over approximately 2 months there were at least 35 manual and more than 70 automatic restarts, and more than 100 hosts were replaced. Loss divergences were handled by lowering the learning rate, rolling back to an earlier checkpoint, and reducing the gradient clipping threshold from 1.0 to 0.3.
  • Evaluation and resources: evaluation covered 16 NLP tasks (HellaSwag, StoryCloze, PIQA, ARC, OpenBookQA, WinoGrande, SuperGLUE, etc.) following the GPT-3 protocol. In the zero-shot setting, OPT-175B roughly matched GPT-3 on 10 tasks. The metaseq codebase and the training logbook were released together with the models.

Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.

Fields: AI & machine learning

Topics Language models & pretraining

Cite

Cite as Susan Zhang, Stephen Roller, Naman Goyal, Mikel Artetxe, Moya Chen, Shuohui Chen, Christopher Dewan, Mona Diab, Xian Li, Xi Victoria Lin, Todor Mihaylov, Myle Ott, Sam Shleifer, Kurt Shuster, Daniel Simig, Punit Singh Koura, Anjali Sridhar, Tianlu Wang and Luke Zettlemoyer. 2022. OPT: Open Pre-trained Transformer Language Models. arXiv:2205.01068.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. DOI 10.48550/arxiv.2205.01068 · arXiv 2205.01068

@misc{zhang2022opt,
  title = {{OPT: Open Pre-trained Transformer Language Models}},
  author = {Susan Zhang, Stephen Roller, Naman Goyal, Mikel Artetxe, Moya Chen, Shuohui Chen, Christopher Dewan, Mona Diab, Xian Li, Xi Victoria Lin, Todor Mihaylov, Myle Ott, Sam Shleifer, Kurt Shuster, Daniel Simig, Punit Singh Koura, Anjali Sridhar, Tianlu Wang and Luke Zettlemoyer},
  year = {2022},
  doi = {10.48550/arxiv.2205.01068},
  eprint = {2205.01068},
  archivePrefix = {arXiv},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.48550/arxiv.2205.01068}
}

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