Elamur Research⌕
☰
home / papers / 2024 / What a difference a digraph made: phonetic spelling and the assimilation of the word “armada” in Early Modern English

What a difference a digraph made: phonetic spelling and the assimilation of the word “armada” in Early Modern English

Paper · 2024 · Laetitia Sansonetti

Summary

The paper asks two linked questions. Does spelling record how a word was pronounced, and does pronunciation show how far a borrowed word has been absorbed into English? It studies one test case, "armada", in Early Modern English (c.1500–1700). The evidence is drawn from two sources: "Early English Books Online", whose more than 60,000 volumes are encoded in SGML/XML and can be searched, and the "Lexicons of Early Modern English" dictionary database. Sansonetti groups the attestations into three spelling families: 'armata', 'armado/-a' and 'armatho/-a'. She reads these as the result of two kinds of substitution: a final vowel that alternates between -a and -o, and a middle consonant that appears as -t-, -d- or -th-. Her claim is that these alternations follow regular sound patterns seen in other English borrowings of Romance nouns built from past participles, and that French adaptations may also have shaped them. She also argues that the 1588 defeat of the Spanish fleet split the usage: Spanish fleets became 'armada' and Italian or Ottoman fleets 'armata'. The case shows how spelling, sound, meaning and history interact when a language borrows words.

Key points

  • Three spelling families: the forms are 'armata' (from Italian), 'armado' (Spanish and French influence) and 'armatho/armatha'. They differ along two axes, the final vowel and the intervocalic plosive.
  • Parallel case in fencing terms:
    • Italian passata settled quickly as 'passado'.
    • stoccata appeared as 'stoccado', 'stockado' and 'stucatho'.
  • Core vs cultural borrowings: the paper uses Carol Myers-Scotton's split between "core" borrowed lexemes, which already have native equivalents ('navy', 'fleet', and at the time 'army'), and "cultural" ones, which name new things. After 1588, 'armada' is said to move from the first kind toward the second, becoming almost a proper noun.
  • Earliest 'armata' (per the OED): John Shute's 1562 translation of Andrea Cambini's 1529 history of the Ottomans. Shute mostly kept 'armata' for the Venetian fleet and used "navy" for other fleets, though not consistently. The OED also cites a 1533 letter that applies "Armado" to the Turks.
  • Late seventeenth century:
    • 'armata' comes back in texts by travellers and diplomats who knew Venice or the Ottoman world, often with an English gloss attached.
    • The 1689 Gazophylacium anglicanum derives the word from Latin armata yet calls it purely Spanish.

Interesting ideas

  • I1. Spelling variants as systematic substitutions: the author treats the variants as the output of a few position-specific substitutions (final -a/-o, medial t/d/th) rather than as random noise, which makes the variation predictable.
  • I2. Word choice that tracks the referent: Shute's split between 'armata' (Venetian) and "navy" (others) shows a translator using lexical choice to mark whose fleet is meant, not just what kind of thing it is.
  • I3. Staged glossing of an unfamiliar term: Gailhard first gives the foreign word in italics with an English gloss, then puts the English word first and the foreign one second, and finally uses the foreign word bare.
  • I4. Capitals and the article as signs of near-proper-noun status: forms like "the Armata" or "Armado" with a capital initial show a common noun moving toward naming one specific entity.
  • I5. Core vs cultural borrowings in the lexicon: separating loanwords that duplicate native words from those naming new concepts gives a principled way to tag borrowed vocabulary.

For Mova

How these ideas could serve Mova, our small open language model — its files, stages and tests:

  • I1 (tokens): the lemmatizer could use small, explainable rewrite rules for each slot to map variant or archaic spellings of loanwords onto one lemma, logging which rule fired.
  • I2 (world): when a text uses near-synonyms with different origins, the entity builder could keep the chosen word as a feature that may mark group or origin, instead of merging the synonyms.
  • I3 (back): the generator could follow the same schedule for rare or technical terms, glossing on first mention, reversing the order once, then dropping the gloss after the reader has met the term.
  • I4 (world): capitalisation plus a definite article on an ordinary noun could raise the likelihood that it names a unique, well-known event or entity, linked in the knowledge graph rather than treated as a class.
  • I5 (world): ontology entries for loanwords could carry this flag, so a core loan maps onto its native concept while a cultural loan gets its own node.

Our summary of the paper, in our own words — not its text. The work belongs to its authors; read it at the links above.

 Institutions

🎓Université Paris NanterreNanterre · France6 works · 197 citations

 Fields, topics and concepts

📚 Shelves 2The field of science this work belongs to (OpenAlex fields).Arts and Humanities · 16,039 worksLanguage and Linguistics · 15,891 works

🧭 Topics 1Research subjects and languages the work is about.English · 2,263 works

Cite

Cite as Laetitia Sansonetti. 2024. What a difference a digraph made: phonetic spelling and the assimilation of the word “armada” in Early Modern English. Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology 23.

The paper itself, not this page. BibTeX from the library's record of the work. DOI 10.4000/lexis.7794

@article{sansonetti2024what,
  title = {{What a difference a digraph made: phonetic spelling and the assimilation of the word “armada” in Early Modern English}},
  author = {Laetitia Sansonetti},
  journal = {Lexis: Journal in English Lexicology 23},
  year = {2024},
  doi = {10.4000/lexis.7794},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.4000/lexis.7794}
}

References

18 references, 0 of them with a card of ours. ↗ leads to the work, «find» searches for one we have no id for yet.

  1. Allen, William. 1582. A briefe historie of the glorious martyrdom of XII. reverend priests, executed within these twelvemonethes for confession and defence of the Catholike faith But under the false pretence of treason. Reims: J. Foigny[?]. Baret, John. 1580. An alvearie or quadruple dictionarie containing foure sundrie tongues: namelie, English, Latine, Greeke, and French. London: Henry Denham, William Seres. Barret, Robert. 1598. The theorike and practike of moderne warres. London: Printed [by R. Field] for William Posonby. find
  2. Baugh, Albert C. & Thomas Cable. 2013. A History of the English Language, Fifth Edition. London: Routledge. find
  3. Beddard, R. A. P. J. 2008. “Palmer, Roger, earl of Castlemaine (1634-1705).” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online. Bellot, Jacques. 1586. Familiar dialogues for the instruction of them, that be desirous to learne to speake English, and perfectlye to pronou[n]ce the same: set forth by Iames Bellot gentleman of Caen. London: Thomas Vautrollier. find
  4. Brennan, Michael G. 1988. Literary Patronage in the English Renaissance: The Pembroke Family. London: Routledge. Cambini, Andrea. 1529. Libro della origine de Turchi et imperio delli Ottomanni. Florence: heirs of Philippo di Giunta. Cambini, Andrea. 1562. trans. John Shute. Two very notable commentaries the one of the originall of the Turcks and Empire of the house of Ottomanno. London: Rouland Hall for Humfrey Toye. Carion, Johannes. 1550a. Io. Carioonis Mathematici Buetickheinensis Chronicorum libri tres, trans. Hermann Bonn. Frankfort: Peter Braubach. Carion, Johannes. 1550b. trans. Walter Lynne. The thre bokes of cronicles. London: [By S. Mierdman] for Gwalter Lynne. Cecil, William & Baron Burghley. 1588a. The copie of a letter sent out of England to Don Bernardin Mendoza ambassadour in France for the King of Spaine declaring the state of England, contrary to the opinion of Don Bernardin, and of all his partizans Spaniardes and others. London: By J. Vautrollier for Richard Field. Cecil, William & Baron Burghley. 1588b. La copie d’une lettre envoyee d’Angleterre a Dom Bernardin de Mendoze ambassadeur en France pour le Roy d’Espagne par laquelle est declare l’estat du Roiaume d’Angleterre. London: J. Vautrollier for R. Field, 1588. Cecil, William & Baron Burghley. 1588c. Essempio d’una lettera mandata d’Inghilterra a Don Bernardino Mendozza ambasciatore in Francia per lo re di Spagna nella quale si dichiara, lo stato del reame d’Inghilterra. London: Per Arrigo del Bosco [i.e. J. Wolfe]. Chettle, Henry. 1603. Englands mourning garment worne heere by plaine shepheards, in memorie of their sacred mistresse, Elizabeth. London: [By E. Short?] for Thomas Millington. Corro, Antonio del. 1590. trans. John Thorie. The Spanish grammer with certeine rules teaching both the Spanish and French tongues. London: By Iohn Wolfe. D. F. R. de M. 1589a. Respuesta y desengano contra las falsedades publicadas en Españ a enbituperio de la armada Inglesa y de el illustrissimo y excelentissimo Señ or don Charlos Conde de Howarde grande Almirante de Ingalaterra. London: Arnold Hatfield, for Thomas Cadman. D. F. R. de M. 1589b. trans. James Lea. An ansvver to the vntruthes, published and printed in Spaine, in glorie of their supposed victorie atchieved against our English Navie, and the Right Honorable Charles Lord Howard, Lord high Admiral of England, &c. London: Printed by John Jackson, for Thomas Cadman. Della Valle, Pietro. 1665. trans. George Havers. The travels of Sig. Pietro della Valle, a noble Roman, into East-India and Arabia Deserta. London: Printed by J. Macock for Henry Herringman. find
  5. Dobson, E.J. 1985. English Pronunciation 1500-1700. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Dryden, John. 1667. Annus mirabilis, The year of wonders, 1666 an historical poem containing the progress and various successes of our naval war with Holland. London: Printed for Henry Herringman. find
  6. Durkin, Philip. 2014. Borrowed Words. A History of Loanwords in English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Encyclopædia perthensis; or Universal dictionary of knowledge. 1796. Perth: printed for C. Mitchel and Co. find
  7. Feingold, Mordechai. 2008. Stubbe [Stubbes, Stubbs], Henry (1632-1676). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online. Florio, John. 1578. Florio his firste fruites which yeelde familiar speech, merie prouerbes, wittie sentences, and golden sayings. London: Thomas Dawson, for Thomas Woodcocke. Fougasses, Thomas de. 1608. Histoire générale de Venise, Tome premier. Paris: Abel L’Angelier. Fougasses, Thomas de. 1612. trans. William Shute. The generall historie of the magnificent state of Venice. London: Printed by G. Eld, and W. Stansby, 1612. Gailhard, Jean. 1669. The present state of the republick of Venice as to the government, laws, forces, riches, manners, customes, revenue, and territory of that common-wealth. London: Printed for John Starkey. Gascoigne, George. 1575. The poesies of George Gascoigne Esquire. London: By H. Bynneman for Richard Smith. Gazophylacium anglicanum containing the derivation of English words, proper and common. 1689. London: Printed by E.H. and W.H. Greene, Robert. 1589. The Spanish masquerado. London: By Roger Ward, for Thomas Cadman. Hart, John. 1569. An orthographie conteyning the due order and reason, howe to write or paint thimage of mannes voice, most like to the life or nature. London: William Seres. Holinshed, Raphael. 1577. The firste [laste] volume of the chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande. London: Imprinted for John Hunne. find
  8. Hualde, José Ignacio. 2005. The Sounds of Spanish. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. find
  9. Ingram, Anders. 2015. Writing the Ottomans: Turkish History in Early Modern England. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. Johnson, Samuel. 1755. A dictionary of the English language. London: Printed by W. Strahan, for J. and P. Knaptor; T. and T. Longman; C. Hitch and L. Hawes; A. Millar; and R. and J. Dodsley. find
  10. Jones, Daniel. 1991. English Pronouncing Dictionary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. find
  11. Jones, Richard Forster. 1953. The Triumph of the English Language. Stanford: Stanford University Press. Knight, Francis. 1640. A relation of seaven yeares slaverie under the Turkes of Argeire, suffered by an English captive merchant. London: Printed by T. Cotes, for Michael Sparke Junior. find
  12. Lass, Roger (ed.). 2000. The Cambridge History of the English Language, Volume III: 1476-1776. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Le Petit, Jean François. 1597. Sonets des grands exploicts victorieux de hault et puissant seigneur Maurice, Prince d’Orange. The Hague: Aelbraecht Hendricksz. Lily, William. 1540. Institutio compendiaria totius grammaticae. London: Thomas Berthelet. find
  13. Lloyd, Paul M. 1987. From Latin to Spanish. Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. Machiavelli, Niccolò. 1537. Le historie fiorentine. Florence: Giunta. Machiavelli, Niccolò. 1595. trans. Thomas Bedingfield. The Florentine historie. London: by T[homas] C[reede] for W[illiam] P[onsonby]. ↗
  14. Maclean, Gerald. 2007. Looking East: English Writing and the Ottoman Empire before 1800. Basingstoke: Palgrave. find
  15. Magnusson, Lynne. 2008. ‘To gase so much at the fine stranger’: Armado and the Politics of English in Love’s Labour’s Lost. In Paul Yachnin and Patricia Badir (eds), Shakespeare and the Cultures of Performance. Aldershot: Ashgate: 53-68. Maisonneufve, Estienne de (1578). 1581. La plaisante et delectable histoire de Gerileon d’Angleterre. Lyon: Benoît Rigaud. Maisonneufve, Estienne de. 1578. trans. Miles Jennings. The gallant, delectable and pleasaunt hystorie of Gerileon of Englande. London: [By John Kingston] for Myles Jennynges. find
  16. Myers-Scotton, Carol. 1997. Duelling Languages: Grammatical Structure in Codeswitching. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Newes from Rome, Venice, and Vienna, touching the present proceedinges of the Turkes against the Christians in Austria, Hungarie, and Helvetia, otherwise called Sevenbergh. 1595. London: By Iohn Danter, for Thomas Gosson. N.N.M. 1657. The defeat of the Barbary fleet; or A letter of advice relating the late glorious victory, which the Republique of Venice obtaind against the Turk in the chanel of Scio in the Archipelago. London: Printed for Richard Lowndes. Oudin, César. 1619. Grammaire Espagnolle explicquee en françois (3 rd edition). Brussels: Hubert Antoine. Oudin, Cé sar. 1622. A grammar Spanish and English. London: Printed by John Haviland for Edward Blount. Oxford English Dictionary, online. Palmer, Roger, earl of Castlemaine. 1666. An account of the present war between the Venetians & Turk with the state of Candie (in a letter to the king, from Venice). London: Printed by J.M. for H. Herringman. Perceval, Richard. 1591. Bibliotheca Hispanica Containing a grammar; with a dictionarie in Spanish, English, and Latine. London: By John Jackson, for Richard Watkins. Perceval, Richard (and Minsheu, John). 1599. A Spanish grammar. London: By Edm. Bollifant. Reynolds, John. 1650. The flower of fidelitie. Displaying in a continuate historie, the various adventures of three foraign princes. By John Reynolds, author of that excellent historie, entituled God’s revenge against murther. London: Printed by T. M[abb] and A. C[oles] for George Badger. Rycaut, Paul. 1668. The present state of the Ottoman Empire. London: Printed for John Starkey and Henry Brome. Rycaut, Paul. 1680. The history of the Turkish empire from the year 1623 to the year 1677. London: Printed by J.M. for John Starkey. Rycaut, Paul. 1687. The history of the Turkish empire from the year 1623, to the year 1677. London: Printed by J.D. for Tho. Basset, R. Clavell, J. Robinson, and A. Churchill. Rycaut, Paul. 1700. The history of the Turks Beginning with the year 1679. London: Printed for Robert Clavell and Abel Roper. Salesbury, William. 1550. A briefe and a playne introduction, teachyng how to pronounce the letters of the British tong, (now commenly called Walsh). London: [in the house of Thomas Berthelet]. find
  17. Sansonetti, Laetitia. 2022. Immortal passados: early modern England’s Italianate fencing jargon on page and stage. In Karen Bennett & Angelo Cattaneo (eds), Language Dynamics in the Early Modern Period. London and New York: Routledge: 190-206. Shakespeare, William. 1598. Love’s Labour’s Lost (Quarto 1, 1598). Internet Shakespeare Editions [online], University of Victoria, accessed 15 November 2023; available from: https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/doc/LLL_Q1/complete/index.html. Shakespeare, William. 1623a. King John (Folio 1, 1623). Internet Shakespeare Editions [online]. ↗
  18. University of Victoria, accessed 14 November 2023; available from: https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/doc/Jn_F1/complete/index.html. Shakespeare, William. 1623b. Love’s Labour’s Lost (Folio 1, 1623). Internet Shakespeare Editions [online]. University of Victoria, accessed 14 November 2023; available from: https://internetshakespeare.uvic.ca/doc/LLL_F1/complete/index.html. Sheridan, Thomas. 1789. A Complete dictionary of the English language. London, Charles Dilly. A Skeltonicall salutation, or condigne gratulation, and just vexation of the Spanish nation that in a bravado, spent many a crusado, in setting forth an armado England to invado. 1589. London: [By ↗

Updated

↑ back to top

This page in Markdown → https://md.research.elamur.ai/free/en/papers/sansonetti-2024-difference-digraph-made-phonetic-spelling/